RESEARCH PAPER: JESUS IN THE QUR’AN AND HADITH
by
John Harrigan
ICS 6071 – Approaches to Islam
Trevor Castor
April 16, 2016
Muhammad seems to have understood himself as the true heir of the Judeo-Christian tradition (cf. Q. 2:87ff.; 3:84f.; 41:41ff.). Muhammad believed he was the last in a long line Jewish and Christian prophets (though of course, he believed those prophets to actually be Muslim). There are indeed many similarities between Judeo-Christian and Muslim thought. Muhammad’s belief in God, creation, and the Last Day seem to be substantially equivalent. The Qur’an’s understanding of Paradise is also similar to that of the Bible.
On the other hand there are many differences between Muhammad’s views and that of the Judeo-Christian tradition which preceded him. For example, the Islamic literature seems to say little about Temple sacrifice and substitutionary atonement (and the subsidiary doctrines of propitiation, justification, and redemption), which is so consistently referenced in the Old and New Testaments. The Qur’an and Hadith also make no mention of the kingdom of God, which plays such a central role in the Bible. Similarly, Muhammad had little room for messianic expectation, which dominated the Judeo-Christian tradition before him. Extirpated from this tradition and from these themes, Muhammad paints Jesus as something of a generic apocalyptic prophet. Based on the Qur’an and Hadith, this paper will analyze Muhammad’s understanding of Jesus and contrast it with the Bible.
Jesus in the Qur’an
Out of 114 Suras in the Qur’an, Jesus is mentioned in 14 of them (Q. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 19, 21, 23, 33, 42, 43, 57, 61), totaling 90 different verses. The majority of these references occur in Medina (Q. 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 33, 57, 61), while only a handful are spoken in Mecca (Q. 6, 19, 21, 23, 42, 43). Interestingly, there are no references to Jesus in the earliest Meccan Suras. My initial observation is that references to Jesus take on an increasingly polemical tone in the Qur’an. Early in Muhammad’s career, Jesus is generally an honored figure, who is understood in light of the Jewish prophetic tradition. Though this idea continues throughout, later references to Jesus in the Qur’an, are couched in progressively harsher accusations against Christians who supposedly misrepresent him.
The first reference to Jesus is found in Sura 19, which is simply entitled “Mary.” Though the last half of the Sura involves a debate with interlocutors concerning whether or not redemptive history ends apocalyptically, the first part of the Sura glorifies the faith of Zechariah, John, and Mary. In verse 19, Mary is spoken to by “a Messenger” (assumedly the Gabriel of verse 64) who promises Mary “the gift of a pure son.” This son was born miraculously (without a human father), and echoing the biblical account of Hagar, he was born in desperation somewhere in “a distant place” (v. 22). After returning from the wilderness, Mary is persecuted by her people, but instead of defending herself, she points to the infant Jesus who speaks in her defense, saying,
I am a servant of God. He has granted me the Scripture; made me a prophet; made me blessed wherever I may be. He commanded me to pray, to give alms as long as I live, to cherish my mother. He did not make me domineering or graceless. Peace was on me the day I was born, and will be on me the day I die and the day I am raised to life again. (vv. 30–33)
The Qur’an then states, “Such was Jesus, son of Mary” (v. 34), before launching into a condemnation of perceived Christian theology:
[This is] a statement of the Truth about which they are in doubt: it would not befit God to have a child. He is far above that: when He decrees something, He says only, ‘Be,’ and it is. ‘God is my Lord and your Lord, so serve Him: that is a straight path.’ 37But factions have differed among themselves. What suffering will come to those who obscure the truth when a dreadful Day arrives! (vv. 34–37)
The “Truth” which “they” (i.e. Christians) are confused about concerns the sonship of Jesus. Muhammad announces early in his career that he is clearing up any confusion about Jesus: he is simply “a servant of God” and “a prophet” (v. 30), who prays faithfully and gives to the poor (v. 31). Jesus is thus presented as an ideal Muslim (or, alternatively, he is conformed into Muhammad’s own ideal self-image).
Following Sura 19, Jesus is referenced twice in the middle Meccan period as a prophetic “sign” (Q. 21:91; 23:50). The term “sign” has varied meaning in the Qur’an, ranging from simple “miracle” or “confirmation,” to a prophetic “message/warning,” to a more complex eschatological “signpost” (i.e., pointing to the eschaton). Both Sura 21 and 23 heavily emphasize the prophetic tradition (note their titles, “The Prophets” and “The Believers”), so it seems that Muhammad had in mind that Jesus’ miraculous birth was simply a miracle confirming his prophetic calling, which was understood to be in line with Moses and Aaron (Q. 21:48ff.), Abraham (vv. 51ff.), Noah (vv. 76f.), David and Solomon (vv. 78ff.), Job (vv. 83ff.), and Zachariah (vv. 89f.)—all of whom are understood as apocalyptic messengers. Thus Sura 21 concludes the prophetic tradition: “Remember the one who guarded her chastity [Mary]. We breathed into her from Our Spirit and made her and her son [Jesus] a sign for all people” (v. 91).
Similarly, Sura 23 recounts the life of Noah (vv. 23ff.), an unidentified messenger (vv. 31ff., Hūd?), and Moses and Aaron (vv. 45ff.), concluding with Mary and Jesus: “We gave Moses the Scripture, so that they might be rightly guided. We made the son of Mary and his mother a sign; We gave them shelter on a peaceful hillside with flowing water” (vv. 49–50). Here we see again Jesus as the conclusion of the prophetic tradition, which immediately turns to an exhortation to the present “Messengers” (v. 51; cf. Q. 21:92) concerning the eschatological judgment, paradise, and hell.
The last mention of Jesus in the middle Meccan period comes in Sura 43, which is also similar to Suras 21 and 23. The “insolent people” (Q. 43:5) of Mecca had rejected Muhammad and his message, which of course was akin to “many a prophet [sent] to earlier people and they mocked every one of them” (vv. 6–7). The Qur’an goes on to recount creation (vv. 9ff.), Abraham (vv. 26ff.), and Moses (vv. 46ff.), concluding once again with Mary and Jesus: “When the son of Mary is cited as an example, your people [Prophet] laugh and jeer . . . they are a contentious people—but he is only a servant We favoured and made an example for the Children of Israel” (vv. 57–59). Jesus is simply “a servant,” no different from previous prophets, who all speak the same apocalyptic message: “This [Qur’an] gives knowledge of the Hour: do not doubt it. Follow Me for this is the right path” (vv. 61–62).
Interestingly, Sura 43 reveals some of the factions within Judaism and Christianity to which Muhammad had been exposed: “When Jesus came with clear signs he said, ‘I have brought you wisdom; I have come to clear up some of your differences for you. Be mindful of God and obey me: God is my Lord and your Lord. Serve Him: this is the straight path’” (vv. 63–64). Like all the prophets, Muhammad and Jesus declared the simple, straight path of redemptive history leading to the eschatological Day. Yet disbelievers complicated things and rejected such a straightforward message: “Yet still the different factions among them disagreed—woe to the evildoers: they will suffer the torment of a grievous day!” (v. 65).
The Qur’an only mentions Jesus twice in the late Meccan period. Sura 42 is in line with Sura 43 concerning the unity of the prophetic witness and mankind’s tendency toward rebellion and disunity: “In matters of faith, He has laid down for you [people] the same commandment that He gave Noah, which We have revealed to you [Muhammad] and which We enjoined on Abraham and Moses and Jesus: ‘Uphold the faith and do not divide into factions within it’” (Q. 42:13). Sura 6 similarly frames the prophetic tradition as a unified whole, preaching the same simplified version of redemptive history:
We gave him Isaac and Jacob, each of whom We guided, as We had guided Noah before, and among his descendants were David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron—in this way We reward those who do good—Zachariah, John, Jesus, and Elijah—every one of them was righteous. . . . We chose them and guided them on a straight path. (vv. 84–87)
The Medinan period marks a substantial transition in Muhammad’s relationship with the Judeo-Christian tradition. After the tragic death of his wife Khadija and uncle Abu Talib, Muhammad migrated to Medina, and God gave him “permission to fight” those who rejected and persecuted his message. After the migration, Muhammad’s revelations took on a much more militant tone, and the revelations began equating obedience to the “Messenger” with obedience to God. In Medina Muhammad became increasingly polemical against the Jews and Christians, now simply referenced as the “People of the Book.” The Jews and Christians often claimed to receive Muhammad as a prophet, but they were actually “hypocrites” (Arabic munafiqun), another term only used during the Medinan period. Moreover, after receiving the revelation to stop praying toward Jerusalem and begin praying toward Mecca, Muhammad began systematically raiding and attacking neighboring Jewish tribes.
This Medinan turn of events is reflected in the Qur’an’s treatment of Jesus and the Christians. Sura 2 begins the Medinan Suras, and though Jesus remains the same in his prophetic calling and role, polemics against the “People of the Book” are amplified:
Neither those People of the Book who disbelieve nor the idolaters would like anything good to be sent down to you from your Lord. . . . Any revelation We cause to be superseded or forgotten, We replace with something better or similar. . . . They also say, ‘No one will enter Paradise unless he is a Jew or a Christian.’ This is their own wishful thinking. (vv. 105–11)
The Qur’an goes on to state emphatically, “They have asserted, ‘God has a child.’ May He be exalted! No!” (v. 116). These statements give the polemical backdrop to the descriptions of Jesus in Sura 2: “We gave Moses the Scripture and We sent messengers after him in succession. We gave Jesus, son of Mary, clear signs and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. So how is it that, whenever a messenger brings you something you do not like, you become arrogant?” (v. 87). Or similarly,
They say, ‘Become Jews or Christians, and you will be rightly guided.’ Say [Prophet], ‘No, [ours is] the religion of Abraham, the upright, who did not worship any god besides God.’ 136So [you believers], say, ‘We believe in God and in what was sent down to us and what was sent down to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and what was given to Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets by their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and we devote ourselves to Him.’ (vv. 135–36)
And speaking of the sectarian history of the church, Sura 2 concludes, “We gave Jesus, son of Mary, Our clear signs and strengthened him with the holy spirit. If God had so willed, their successors would not have fought each other after they had been brought clear signs. But they disagreed: some believed and some disbelieved” (v. 253).
The rest of the Medinan Suras continue in the same trajectory. Suras 3 and 4 are rife with references to Jesus and Christians (too many to quote in this paper). Most of them are contained in two sections (Q. 3:45–60 and 4:157–72). In Sura 3, the angels announce to Mary, “God gives you news of a Word from Him, whose name will be the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, who will be held in honour in this world and the next, who will be one of those brought near to God. He will speak to people in his infancy and in his adulthood. He will be one of the righteous” (vv. 45–46). This continues the idea that Jesus is simply “a Word from Him,” who will “speak to people,” i.e. “one of the righteous.” Though he creates a living bird out of clay, heals the sick, and even raises the dead (v. 49), these are simply “a sign” (v. 50), confirming his prophethood. Jesus is only a prophet, only a man, as the revelation concludes, “We relate to you [Muhammad] this revelation, a decisive statement. In God’s eyes Jesus is just like Adam” (vv. 58–59). While Jesus is credited with many miracles, this does not denote any sense of divinity considering they are always done by Allah’s leave.
Sura 4 continues the same line of argumentation, though verse 171 may be one of Muhammad’s most pointed statements:
People of the Book, do not go to excess in your religion, and do not say anything about God except the truth: the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was nothing more than a messenger of God, His word, directed to Mary, a spirit from Him. So believe in God and His messengers and do not speak of a ‘Trinity’—stop [this], that is better for you—God is only one God, He is far above having a son, everything in the heavens and earth belongs to Him and He is the best one to trust. (emphasis added)
It seems Christians were arguing with Muhammad, condescending toward the idea that Jesus was only a prophet. Rather, “The Messiah would never disdain to be a servant of God, nor would the angels who are close to Him” (v. 172). Instead, it will be the Christians who will be punished, who falsely distain Jesus’ prophethood—“to those who are disdainful and arrogant He will give an agonizing torment” (v. 173).
Suras 33, 57, and 61 continue the same narrative, only the lines seem to become sharper and harsher: “those who disbelieve and deny Our revelations are the inhabitants of Hell” (Q. 57:19). Interestingly, it seems that Muhammad had by this time grown weary of the monasticism he had encountered: “After those We sent Jesus, son of Mary: We gave him the Gospel and put compassion and mercy into the hearts of his followers. But monasticism was something they invented—We did not ordain it for them” (v. 27). Jesus was a prophet (like Muhammad), not a monk.
But even more, Jesus intentionally paved the way for Muhammad, as described in Sura 61, “Jesus, son of Mary, said, ‘Children of Israel, I am sent to you by God, confirming the Torah that came before me and bringing good news of a messenger to follow me whose name will be Ahmad’” (v. 6). Ahmad is an honorific variant of the Arabic for Muhammad. Thus, the prophetic tradition is sealed from Adam to Ahmad, and as such, “it is He who sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth to show that it is above all [other] religions, even though the idolaters hate it” (v. 9). By this time in Muhammad’s career “idolaters” had come to include the Christians who worshipped Jesus as God (cf. Q. 9:33).
Suras 9 and 5 conclude the Qur’anic revelation, and they are by far the most belligerent against the Jews and Christians. By this time in Muhammad’s life, his army expeditions are in full swing, and his revelations become completely uninhibited:
Fight those of the People of the Book who do not [truly] believe in God and the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden, who do not obey the rule of justice, until they pay the tax and agree to submit. The Jews said, ‘Ezra is the son of God,’ and the Christians said, ‘The Messiah is the son of God’: they said this with their own mouths, repeating what earlier disbelievers had said. May God confound them! How far astray they have been led! They take their rabbis and their monks as lords, as well as Christ, the son of Mary. But they were commanded to serve only one God: there is no god but Him; He is far above whatever they set up as His partners! (Q. 9:29–31)
As such Muhammad’s revelations become hyper-militant toward perceived apostasy: “wherever you encounter the idolaters, kill them, seize them, besiege them, wait for them at every lookout post” (v. 5).
Generally held to be the final revelation given to Muhammad, Sura 5 contains the most references to Jesus. It is also the clearest in its rejection of the Judeo-Christian tradition: “You who believe, do not take the Jews and Christians as allies: they are allies only to each other. Anyone who takes them as an ally becomes one of them—God does not guide such wrongdoers” (v. 51). Jesus is indeed a prophet (vv. 46, 78), but the Jews hated him, and the Christians now deny him. Similarly, the People of the Book now hate the true believers (v. 59), and in one of the most shocking statements of the Qur’an, the Jews have been “condemned as apes and pigs” while the Christians are “worse in rank and have strayed further from the right path” (v. 60) (!).
Of course it is God himself who has “sown enmity and hatred amongst them till the Day of Resurrection,” because the People of the Book “try to spread corruption in the land, but God does not love those who corrupt” (v. 64). And in a final attempt to spell out the error of the Christians in their understanding of Jesus, the Qur’an declares:
Those who say, ‘God is the Messiah, son of Mary,’ have defied God. The Messiah himself said, ‘Children of Israel, worship God, my Lord and your Lord.’ If anyone associates others with God, God will forbid him from the Garden, and Hell will be his home. No one will help such evildoers. Those people who say that God is the third of three are defying [the truth]: there is only One God. If they persist in what they are saying, a painful punishment will afflict those of them who persist. . . . The Messiah, son of Mary, was only a messenger; other messengers had come and gone before him; his mother was a virtuous woman; both ate food [like other mortals]. See how clear We make these signs for them; see how deluded they are. (vv. 72–75)
Sura 5 concludes with Jesus giving an account on the Last Day: “When God says, ‘Jesus, son of Mary, did you say to people, “Take me and my mother as two gods alongside God”?’ he will say, ‘May You be exalted! I would never say what I had no right to say’” (v. 116; emphasis added). This verse highlights the fact that Muhammad seems to have been reacting to an overemphasis on Byzantine Mariology. However, this brash statement seems to be more of a mockery of Christian error than a deep seeded belief, since nowhere else does Muhammad state Christianity as such. Moreover, I doubt any attempted clarifications would have changed his mind about Jesus. If Jesus was in any way God, then God’s oneness would be violated. One God with multiple persons does not seem to be an acceptable category for Muhammad. This was his “decisive statement”—“In God’s eyes Jesus is just like Adam” (Q. 3:58–59; emphasis added).
Jesus in the Hadith
References to Jesus in the Hadith exceed those of the Qur’an. However, the same sayings are often repeated, so most of them can be summarized in a few subjects. The contours of Jesus’ nature and prophetic role before God are roughly the same as found in the Qur’an. When he is spoken of, it is in a secondary and subservient manner. Jesus is simply the “Pious slave of Allah” (Al-Bukhari 4.55.568), just like Muhammad (Al-Bukhari 1.1.6), and all other true Muslims (Al-Bukhari 1.12.794; 3.31.121; 4.52.176; etc.).
The Hadith repeatedly emphasize that Jesus is only a man. For example, “Narrated ‘Umar: I heard the Prophet saying, ‘Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a Slave. So, call me the Slave of Allah and His Apostle’” (Al-Bukhari 4.55.654; cf. 8.82.817). The same idea is recapitulated by Jesus on the Last Day (Al-Bukhari 6.60.263; 7.63.209; 8.76.532). Even Jesus’ miracles are downplayed, since two other people also spoke from the cradle (Al-Bukhari 4.55.645; Muslim 32.3.6188). On the other hand, Jesus is a very unique man, because he was protected from Satan at birth: “The Prophet said, ‘When any human being is born. Satan touches him at both sides of the body with his two fingers, except Jesus, the son of Mary, whom Satan tried to touch but failed, for he touched the placenta-cover instead’” (Al-Bukhari 4.54.505; cf. Muslim 33.6.6429).
Jesus is also consistently placed in line with the prophets of the Old Testament. During Muhammad’s Night Journey, Jesus is just one of the prophets he encounters (an event recounted in the Hadith many times). Similarly, Muhammad and Jesus function in the same prophetic role: “Narrated Abu Huraira: I heard Allah’s Apostle saying, ‘I am the nearest of all the people to the son of Mary, and all the prophets are paternal brothers, and there has been no prophet between me and him (i.e. Jesus)’” (Al-Bukhari 4.55.651; cf. Muslim 30.37.5834–36). Moreover, those who believe in Jesus and then become Muslims will receive a “double reward” (Al-Bukhari 1.3.97; 4.55.655).
Jesus is also pictured “on the Day of Resurrection” with all the other prophets. The believers look for someone to intercede for them, and each of the prophets redirects them to another prophet. They come to Jesus, and he says, “I am not fit for this undertaking, go to Muhammad the Slave of Allah whose past and future sins were forgiven by Allah.” And of course, those who “used to worship Jesus, the son of Allah” will be thrown into Hellfire (Al-Bukhari 6.60.105; cf. Muslim 1.81.352).
In a similar polemical tone, a saying is often repeated concerning Jesus returning at the end of the age: “Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said, ‘The Hour will not be established until the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you as a just ruler, he will break the cross, kill the pigs, and abolish the Jizya tax’” (Al-Bukhari 3.43.656; cf. 3.34.425; 4.55.657; Muslim 1.287, 289). Moreover, he will judge the Christians “by the Law of the Quran and not by the law of Gospel” (Al-Bukhari 4.55.658; cf. Muslim 1.72.293).
The distinguishing aspect of Jesus found only in the Hadith is his role in temporal eschatology, especially in connection to the Antichrist (Ad-Dajjal). One night Muhammad had a dream in which he saw two men circumambulating the Kaba: the beautiful “Jesus, son of Mary” and the ugly “Masih, Ad-Dajjal” (Al-Bukhari 4.55.649; cf. 4.55.650; 7.72.789; 9.87.128; 9.88.242; Muslim 1.76.325). The Last Hour will not happen until ten signs appear, one of which being the coming of the Antichrist and the last being the descent of Jesus Christ (Muslim 41.13.6931–34).
Furthermore, before the Last Day, the Roman armies will meet the Muslim armies at Dabiq, and Jesus will descend, lead the Muslims in prayer, and destroy the Romans like salt dissolving in water (Muslim 41.9.6924). Specifically, “Allah would send Christ, son of Mary, and he will descend at the white minaret in the eastern side of Damascus wearing two garments lightly dyed with saffron and placing his hands on the wings of two Angels” (Muslim 41.18.7015). Then Jesus will chase down the Antichrist and kill him (Muslim 41.21.7023).
These are almost all of the references to Jesus in the Hadith of Al-Bukhari and Muslim, and considering their sheer size, it is noted that Jesus is spoken of relatively little. Though Phil Parshall attempts to draw out the unique nature of Jesus in the Hadith for evangelistic purposes, it seems to me that the Jesus of the Hadith fits very well within the Qur’anic worldview: he is simply a man functioning within the prophetic tradition.
Conclusion
The Old Testament prophesied both a suffering Servant and a glorious Messiah. The New Testament chronicles the former and confirms the latter. “Was it not necessary that the Messiah should suffer these things and before entering into his glory?” (Luke 24:26). It has been shown that “glory” is the “catchword” for Jewish apocalypticism. Jesus will indeed return on the clouds of heaven (Acts 1:11; 1 Thess. 4:17), with fire and angels (Matt. 16:27; 2 Thess. 1:8), judging the living and the dead (Acts 10:42; 2 Tim. 4:1), assuming the throne of David (Luke 1:32; Matt. 19:28), and restoring the kingdom to Israel (Mark 11:10; Acts 1:6).
The Qur’an and Hadith seem rather ignorant of the biblical tradition. Their presentation of Jesus misses the primary elements of Jewish messiahship. Both the suffering and the glory of Christ are overlooked at best and deliberately attacked at worst. Unlike mantra of Sura 1:7, the Jews have not incurred the wrath of God—their hope remains secure (Rom. 11:29). And the Christians have not gone astray—God did indeed give his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but inherit eternal life (John 3:16).
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